Human Rights Law DNA Profiling A Comparative Analysis Law Essay

charitable Rights natural law deoxyribonucleic acid write A Comparative Analysis Law Es speculateIt has been stratumed come in al look aty that no know guidege of probabilities, less in degree than certainty, helps us to know what conclusions be true, and that there is no direct relation between the truth of a proposition and its probability. Probability begins and ends with probability. John Maynard KeynesWhat is desoxyribonucleic acid? deoxyribonucleic acid (Deoxyribonucleic acid) is the chemical primer of life that complexes with proteins to form the chromosomes. The sequential arrangement of the someone nucleotides in desoxyribonucleic acid is responsible for the distinctiveness in each given up life form.2 but put, desoxyribonucleic acid is a genetic material that is found in detailed move of our body such(prenominal) as a drop of blood, saliva, semen etc. No two mortals can ever sustain ampere-second% similar deoxyribonucleic acid, unless they ar related by b lood. Even in those founts, depending on the proximity of relationship, it can vary immensely.What is desoxyribonucleic acid fingerprinting?It is a method, by which an individual can be identified on the basis of their fingerprints. It is a less powerful tool than deoxyribonucleic acid as desoxyribonucleic acid contains reading that possibly part way more than just identity element. It could too reveal close relatives, medical history among otherwises and hence there be homophile correct concerns, as soundly as issues relating to retirement.This information gathered could easy be mis functiond if non placed under adequate lapse in the hands of trustworthy soulfulnesss. in that respectfore, desoxyribonucleic acid entropybases moldiness be do by with extreme caution balancing concealing with its potential landmark use in miserable justice.3According to the deoxyribonucleic acid write Bill, 2007,4 deoxyribonucleic acid entropy base means a information base wh ether in computerized or other form, containing the indices mentioned under sub section (4) of Section 335,6.The American Society of homo Genetics (ASHG) statement on desoxyribonucleic acid depository financial institutioning and deoxyribonucleic acid Analysis defined a DNA bank as a facility that stores DNA for incoming analysis7The DNA Profiling bill, 2007 defines DNA information wedge as a computerized and consolidated DNA pen storage and maintenance facility.8DNA fingerprinting/profiling is helpful in eluding of criminal justice where DNA of the victims and suspects argon accumulate from the reach of crime and then is matched in the DNA database with the sample obtained from the victim. Further, the DNA collected is overly stored in the DNA entropybase for future use which is where the hassle of secrecy and regenerates arises.9Thus DNA profiling has raised issues regarding encroachment on military personnel rights and unrestricted creation of DNA databases or DNA data banks heaved privacy concerns. M any(prenominal) countries set about DNA databases and India is in the process of setting up one.In this regard, the DNA Profiling Bill, 2007 is in the pipeline but is except to be passed by Parliament due to the above-mentioned concerns.The UK has the largest forensic DNA database in the world. The UK database already holds DNA profiles (and biological samples) from four million citizens constituting nigh six per penny of the population. The US CODIS database has become slightly larger in terms of the recite of samples but still only when represents one per cent of the population.10DNA contains information that raises much broader privacy and other civil liberties concerns. There is a destiny of changes to be made to limit the development of DNA databases, safeguard privacy and benignant rights. But at the same conviction its value in criminal investigating should not be miss and compromised. This research paper aims to analyze pro s and cons of DNA, to throw light on online scenario of DNA Banking in India, UK and USA and to harmonise the positive and negative aspects of the engineering and make it responsive to the present requirement so that neither investigation or research is compromised, nor privacy and rights of good deal are affected. It shall however, limit its scope to discuss whether DNA Banking is actually encroaching upon Human Rights and raises accomplished Liberties concerns. Also, the DNA Profiling Bill of 2007 is analysed and any repercussions on Human Rights are discussed.II. DNA DATA BANKING, HUMAN RIGHTS AND CIVIL LIBERTIESHow does DNA profiling affect Human Rights? The main issue is inclusion of DNA of any exculpatory person in DNA Database. The DNA from suspects are interpreted and put into the DNA Databank. People volunteer to give their samples to help the constabulary in investigation. The problem arises when simple persons on suspicion but who are not convicted are also included within this database. Thus, DNA from unbiased people is also stored in databases, which forget then be available to police spot to be used whenever they require and in whatever manner they want. This encroaches upon privacy, human rights and civil liberties of those innocent people as DNA is biological depicted object that is unique to every person and hence shouldnt be stored and misused for uncalled-for purposes. Giving the police access to DNA samples, however, could enable a tally of other biases to creep in, including ethnic referencing, where based on DNA, it is possible to cross off against the race which the person belongs to, which certain sections of beau monde vex opposed as universe racial.Effect of creation of unrestricted and unlimited databases1) Undermines the presumptuousness of pureness until proven guiltyEveryone charged with a penal criminal offense has the right to be presumed innocent until proved guilty concord to rectitude in a public trial a t which they cod had all the guarantees needed for their defence.11Everyone charged with a criminal offence shall be presumed innocent until proved guilty according to law.12Although the Constitution of the united States does not cite it explicitly, presumptuousness of sinlessness is widely held to follow from the 5th, 6th and 14th amendments.The United States controlling judicature in Coffin v. United States13 naturalised the presumption of pureness of persons accused of crimes.In India as sanitary, the presumption of innocence is considered as a fundamental ruler of criminal justice ashes. The Indian Constitution provides for the defense of the innocent under conditions 20 and 21. The right against self-incrimination is also provided for in word 20(3)14of the Constitution of India, which means that the accused is not supposed to make any statement against his will. It is a principle of common criminal law formula that is envisaged under Indian Constitution. The prin ciple is based on another principle of common criminal law jurisprudence that a person is presumed to be innocent and it is for the prosecution to establish his guilt.15In the UK too, it is a well established principle of criminal law that a person is presumed to be innocent unless proven guilty, and this principle was emphasized upon in the landmark judgement of Woolmington v DPP16. DNA Profiling undermines the presumption of innocence until proven guilty. The decision is true in a plethora of flakes in India.Even after the limit of a process, DNA database retains the information and thus every time a check is run through the body, innocent peoples entries is also included. Thus, a presumption of guilt exists. As has been found in the UK, including many innocent people in the database does not improve the chance of solving crimes. Instead, there are now more false matches and errors in addition to the clogging of laboratories that require been set up for DNA testing. Such a b acklog could be eased if only the focus was on the guilty rather than the innocent.17The incline font of R (S Marper) v Chief Constable of South Yorkshire18, in the the Court of Appeal in 2002 and the House of Lords in 2004 challenged the holding of fingerprints and DNA samples taken from individuals who impart not been convicted of an offence as violation of Article 819and Article 1420of European linguistic rule on Human Rights. Both the courtrooms ruled that memory of fingerprints and DNA samples either did not have an impact on cliquish life so as to gain Article 8 into play or, if it did, was only a modest infringement. The courts also rejected the argument that the difference between the treatment of unconvicted persons who had not been arrested and were not on the database and those who had been arrested and thus were on it did not fall within the tabu grounds of discrimination in Article 14 of the ECHR.The claimants then approached European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg and the court in case was particularly concerned that people who had not been convicted of any offence and are authorise to the presumption of innocence would be stigmatised by being treated in the same way as convicted persons.21The Court verbalize that it must be borne in mind that the right of every person under the Convention to be presumed innocent includes the general rule that no suspicion regarding an accused persons innocence may be voiced after his acquittal.22It recognised that the belongings of the applicants hush-hush data cannot be equated with the voicing of suspicions. But it stated that the perception of unconvicted persons whose biodata are on the database that they are not being treated as innocent is heightened by the incident that their data are maintained indefinitely in the same way as the data of convicted persons, while the data of those who have never been suspected of an offence are required to be destroyed.232) wallop to privacyNo one s hall be subjected to arbitrary racket with his privacy, family, domicile or correspondence, nor to attacks upon his honor and reputation. Everyone has the right to the tribute of the law against such interference or attacks.24In a European context, Article 825read with Article 1426of European Convention on Human Rights assures privacy to human beings as Human Rights.In the US, the unconditional Court of the United States in Griswold v. Connecticut27has found that other guarantees have penumbras that implicitly assigning a right to privacy against government intrusion.Right to Privacy is cover under Article 2128of the Indian Constitution.29Itwasheldbythe honourableSupremecourtinthe caseofR. Rajagopal v. State of Tamil Nadu30that It is an established fact that every citizen has a right to safeguard the privacy of his own, his family, marriage, procreation, motherhood, child front and education and other matters. Similarly in the caseof Sri Banarsi Das v. mislay Teeku Dutta and O rs.31, the HonourableSupremeCourt held that submitting to theDNAtestisviolationofrightto privacyunderarticle21 oftheConstitutionofIndia.The European Court of Human Rights in Strasbourg in the case of S Marper observed that since the cling toion of personal data is of fundamental importance to a persons enjoyment of his or her right to respect for private or family life, domestic law must afford appropriate safeguards particularly where the data is undergoing automatic processing for police purposes.32Despite the advantages of a large DNA database, other Contracting States have chosen to set limits on the retention and use of such data with a view to achieving a ripe balance with the competing interests of preserving respect for private life.33In the Courts judgment, the protection afforded by Article 8 of the Convention would be unacceptably weakened if the use of modern scientific techniques in the criminal-justice system were allowed at any cost and without carefully balancing the potential benefits of the massive use of such techniques against important private-life interests.34III. POSITION IN UKSince 1984,DNA testing is allowed with limited use with the help of doctors to obtain samples. In 1993,The Royal accusation on reprehensible Justice recommended the setting p of a DNA database. The database was proposed as a more objective form of forensic identification, with as much potential to eliminate suspects as to secure convictions. In 1994,35The vile Justice and Public Order Act (CJPOA) established the NDNAD, and the police could singly take samples without assistance from a doctor. The law besides unreasonably stated that if a person was subsequently found guilty, their information could be stored on the database and their sample kept indefinitely if they were not charged or were acquitted, the data and the sample had to be destroyed.36Susequently, The Criminal Evidence (Amendment) Act in 1997 allowed non-intimate samples to be taken without ho pe from individuals who were still in prison having been convicted for a sex, force play or burglary offence prior to the NDNAD being set up in 1995.37The Criminal Justice Act 2003 allowed DNA profiles to be recorded without consent from anyone in jail who was suspected of any offence including minor ones. In addition, these records could be kept permanently, ir several(prenominal) of his conviction or not.38In April 2004, the Criminal Justice Act, 2003 came into force. The Counter-Terrorism Act 2008 extended police powers to allow DNA and fingerprints to be used in the interests of national security.39Thus, the position regarding DNA fingerprinting and retention of DNA Profile has been constantly changing but ultimately led to violation of right of privacy of person from whom the sample has been obtained because of indefinite retention. later the Marpers case, however, the European Court of Human Rights finally quashed the indiscriminate and arbitrary retention of samples and th e extent of powers given to the police of England and Wales with respect to DNA profiling. This is the first clapperclaw in the correction of a potential gross misuse of these powers.Further, until now the ECHR, alse recommends, In relation to the taking of samples, in paragraph 4 the citizens committee of Ministers recommends,The taking of samples for the purpose of DNA analysis should only be carried out in circumstances determined by the domestic law it being understood that in some States this may necessitate specific ascendence from a judicial authority. Where the domestic law admits that samples may be taken without the consent of the suspect, such samples should only be carried out if the circumstances of the case warrants such action.40Thus, in recent times, the UK and Europe in general have finally moved forward and realized the potential dangers of having an open DNA database.IV. POSITION IN USACODIS (Combined DNA Index System) is the DNA database for USA. Internationa lly, more than 40 law enforcement laboratories in over 25 countries use the CODIS software for their own database initiatives.41The first appellate court validations of DNA-matching testimony in the US were gather inn only in 1988, in the decision by a Florida appeals court in the case of Andrews v. Florida42, where the court accepted DNA print-identificaiton evidence linking defendant to a sexual assault.43CODIS, as compared to the other software, is relatively better render to deal with the issue of civil liberties and privacy, since it has divided the profiles in various parts according to the type of DNA collected such as say blood, or semen etc separate indices for missing persons, voluntary contributors etc. have also been carefully segregated so that it is easier to identify and segregate them to fasten removal in future. However, there is no express provision regarding removal if the person is found guilty in the case of CODIS.44However, in the case of NDIS, i.e. (The National DNA Index System), samples are collected only in accordance with state laws, and are to be disposed off if the persons are not guilty.However, the FBI, along with 15 states, have decided to expand DNA collection efforts in April 2009 to include those who are awaiting trial as well as detained immigrants. With this expansion the bureau estimates an additional 1.2 million samples per year by 2012. This definitely raises concerns about the inclusion of several innocent people who, in all probability, havent take down committed a single crime.45In the case of US v. Kincade46, a 9th circuit Court of Appeals decision, the defendant appealed after a federal district judge sentenced him for violating the terms of his supervised release by refusing to submit a blood sample for DNA testing. The Court of Appeals held that the requirement under the relevant Act that certain federal offenders who were on discussion probation or supervised release submit to compulsory DNA profiling, ev en in the absence of individualized suspicion that the had committed additional crimes, was resasonable and did not violate the 4th amendment.47The position relating to privacy rights is yet to be colonised in the US though, as it desperately awaits a Marper-like law as was in the UK.V. POSITION IN INDIAThere is no DNA Data Bank existing at this point of time in the surface area though DNA Profiling technology does exist and DNA Profiling is being do at Centre for DNA Fingerprinting and diagnostics (CDFD), Hyderabad. But there is no mechanism established by law for storage of DNA Profiles. Further, no legislation pertaining to the same has been passed till date.The DNA Profiling Bill, 200748was introduced with an objective to enhance protection of people in the society and administration of justice, analysis of DNA found at the scene of crime, of the victim or offender has been used to establish identity. It also provides for eminent persons, molecular(a) biologists, law enforcem ent officers etc. to set about appropriate standards for labs, as well as the creation of the position of a DNA Databank49Manager who would be in charge of supervision, execution and maintenance of Databanks.50Further, a DNA Profiling Board comprising of eminent molecular biologists, forensic experts etc. is appointed51, and its powers and functions according to Section 13 of the Bill include mainly ensuring practices followed by the relevant bodies are in accordance with privacy statutes, in invest to protect confidentiality etc.Chapter-VII (Sections 33-37) of the Bill provides for establishment and conduct of DNA Data Bank and provisions ancillary to it. Section 33 provides for establishment of DNA Data Banks both at Central and State level by their respective governments though a notification in official gazette. The National Bank is essentially comprised of the DNA data that has been given by the State Banks.As followed by the NDIS in the US, India also proposes to segregate th e DNA profiling into indices, such as crime-scene index, a suspects index, an offenders index, a missing persons index, unknown deceased persons index, a volunteers index etc. to enable better identification. Here the crucial point is regarding retention of data of volunteers. Once the investigation is over there is no purpose to keep volunteers in the record, their privacy rights are being break in that case.33(6) of the Bill states that the Date Bank shall contain the identity of the person from whose body substance or body substances the profile was derived in case of a profile in the offenders index and the case reference number of the investigation associated with the body substance or body substances from which the profile was derived in case of all other profiles. This provides a benefit to volunteers as their identity is not retained only the offenders identity is retained.Section 34 provides for coordinated of profiles where DNA samples are matched with the DNA profiles in the Data Bank. Once this is done, it is given to the relevant Courts or tribunals that then decides on the basis of these evidence.In order to interlink our Database with foreign databases to enable better criminal identification, Section 35 provides for exchanging information regarding DNA profiles with other international Governments or Organisations, but only with prior approval from the Government.Often, the DNA of even victims is required in the process of finding the perpetrator of the crime. This could lead to a situation where it could be grossly misused if not protected. In order to protect the confidentiality of victims, Section 36 restricts the access to information with regards to victims of offences as well as persons who have ceased to be suspects.However, information relating to convicts is kept indefinitely unless he has been acquitted.Section 37 further gives effect to rights of persons whose conviction has been set aside by providing for expunging of their reco rds from the data bank. As the bill has not been passed yet, not much can be concluded with regard to encroachment of Human Rights of people whose DNA will become a part of DNA Databank. Most important is proper implementation of the Act, if the bill is passed. Mainly, it is important to take into consideration, the debate that the Marper case has brought frontwards in order to harmonise Human Rights with criminal investigation.VI. CONCLUSION passage TO THE DNA PROFILING BILL, 2007This is an era of technology and DNA profiling is speedily advancing. Every coin has two sides, similarly technology has its pros and cons. There is a scope of error, encroachment upon the privacy etc., but the benefits of DNA profiling to criminal investigation system cannot be overlooked. However, society must be warned of the repercussions of a technology. At the same time there is a need for legislatures to see that the negative impact of it can be either avoided or done away with so as to not hamp er Human Rights and Civil Liberties of the people at large. Also it should be taken into consideration that the benefits of it are enjoyed to the fullest. A few suggestions that the author places forward are as follows Databases of those individual who are found innocent shall be eliminated and shall not be retained at all.Importance needs to be placed to the concept of cognizant consent out front taking the DNA of an innocent person (note that innocent here includes suspects, a person is guilty only on conviction).Law enforcement agencies should make sure that taking DNA without consent, or through slickness or fraud will be a punishable offence under the IPC.Data Banks that permanently hold DNA data should be used sparingly only to include convicts who have been convicted of serious offenders. Further, any information that could lead to any bias against them, or any other member of their family is to be kept extremely confidential or deleted.The DNA Profiling Bill, 2007 is well drafted and there are provisions regarding deletion and retention of DNA Databases. But it should be kept in mind that volunteers shall be adequately protected for which not much is expressed in the legislation. both legislation must take into account the pros and cons and indulge in an edifying debate before deciding upon its feasibility in a realm like India. While its benefits in the criminal justice system cannot be overlooked, particularly in cases of Serial offenders, and in reducing the costs of identifying future offenders the very basic core of human rights and legal principles relating to innocence cannot be ignored. It is the authors sincere hope that the Indian legislation, if passed shall take into consideration these matters of grave importance, before implementing at this groundbreaking legislation that could change the criminal justice system forever, for the better.

Implementation Of Child Friendly Schools

Implementation Of nipper amicable SchoolsThis article explores the contri simplyion of relative and Inter field look for in the masteryful implementation of Child Friendly Schools in Kenya. Emphasis depart be giftd on the background of CFS, new suffices and emerging critics, winner stories, problems and pitf totallys and what CIR stool do to subjugate virtually of these contends. In the introduction section, the seek impart start by examining literature surrounding the concepts of CIR and CFS in coition to global agendas explore how CFS came into existence and the driving forces behind it. We then go on to way on a case study of CFS in Kenya, discussing the authority of CIR in the Kenyas CFS, arguing that CIR is used as a semi insurance-making tool in creating preceptal policy, rather than a search manner or an intellectual inquiry. The article will further circumstantially collapse challenges face up CFS and how familiarity on CIR elicit contribute to achiev ing the begets and objectives of CFS. A resultant base on the literature and authors experience will then be drawn. Through protrude the article we build a case in choose of CIR arguing that the strength of spokespersons of proportional look intoers lie on uncritical off of policies and forms from one context to an early(a) which could otherwise open a Pandoras Box. entrancewayPerhaps, one of the growing fields in in governance in the modern age is comparative and world-wide preparation, judged by the volume of studies reported in the literature. Central to this is that some countries around the world realize formulated some of their rearingal policies found on findings from CIR. With the current wave of globalization, researchers and experts, especially in the field of genteelness, be al ways trying to find ways of streamlining their nurtureal policies with the global trends. match to Giddens (199064), globalization is the intensification of worldwide affa ble relations which pertain distance topical anaestheticities in such(prenominal) a way that local happenings argon shaped by reddents occurring many miles away and vice versa. world-wide forces because shoot an impact on shaping local practices with global trends. In articulate to do this tactically and critically, comparative and internal research remains cutting edge in informing people about the realities, the challenges and the manageable effects of uncritical transfer of thought processs.Interestingly, global agendas in matters related to education atomic number 18 prioritized towards elemental education as opposed to adult education or higher education. In Africa, this would be probably because, as Oketch (2004) points out, staple fibre education yields higher rates of returns comp atomic number 18d to higher education. This has subsequently caused government and non-governmental organizations to taper more than on up(p) the part of basic education. Child-fri endly instructings (CFSs) in Kenya is an exemplar of a non-governmental initiative sponsored by UNICEF with the aim of not just providing churlren decently to education but the right to the right education. In other words, CFSs ar more concerned with the gauge of basic education in increase to its access. The emergence of CFSs in Kenya was catapulted by the forces of agendas 1 and 2 of Millenium Development Goals (MDGs) which emphasizes on the provision of basic education. The term part in education is can-do because of the tender, political and sparing context at which it is used. Because of differences in contexts, it is imperative that knowledge of comparative and international research be used in blueprint policies and pedagogy in CFS that fit that particular context. But the question is how can CIR be helpful in successful implementation of CFS in Kenya? To answer this question, this essay hinges on 2 broad concepts Comparative and International seek and Child Friendly Schools.Literature ReviewIn this section, the author will look atConcepts of Comparative and International Research (CIR) and Child Friendly School (CFS)CIR is a fusion of two broad areas of research Comparative Research and International Research. To pull in its full meaning, it is important we define the two areas of research separately. In his definition of comparative research, Mills et al ( division) lay out thatComparative research is a broad term that accepts both quantitative and soft comparison of social entities. Social entities may be based on many lines, such as geographical or political ones in the form of cross-national or regional comparisons. (p. 621)A similar scholarship was echoed by Noah and Eckstein (1969 127), who described comparative education as an intersection of the social sciences, education and cross-national study which attempts to use cross-national data to test propositions about the birth among education and society and between teachi ng practices and training outcomes.In light of this definition, comparative research in the context of education can be defined as a study of two or more entities or events (Crossley Watson 2003) with the underlying goal of searching for similarity and variance. Cross-national or regional comparisons may include comparing educational policies, pedagogy, educational leadership and so on. According to Mills et al (2006 621), the search for variance places more emphasis on context and difference in order to actualise specificities.International education, on the other hand, can be defined as the application of descriptions, analyses and insights learn in one or more nations to the problems of ontogeny educational systems and institutions in other countries (Wilson 2000a 116). Thus, international research is concerned with research carried out across two or more countries, often with the blueprint of comparing responses between them. This might be done in order to devise strategi es that work well across both or all these cultures or to suggest local adjustments to a global strategy thither is a close relationship between comparative and international education. Epstein (1994 918) points out, that international educators use findings derived from comparative education to understand better the processes they examine, and thus, to enhance their cleverness to make policy. We can therefore draw from the above two definitions that CIR in education as a method of comparing both qualitative and quantitative entities in education across different countries, societies or cultures with the aim of identifying similarities and differences. It is however important to note that not all international research is comparative, and not all comparative research is international or cross-national.According to UNICEF, a child-friendly school is both a child seeking school and a child-centred school It is child seeking because it actively identifying excluded children to get th em enrolled in school. It is a child-centred school because it acts in the best interests of the child leading to the realization of the childs full potential, is concerned about the whole child her health, nutritional status, and well-being and concerned about what happens to children before they enter school and after they entrust school. A CFS system recognizes and respects childrens right and responsibilities it provides the enabling environment to visualize childrens right not only in schools, but besides in childrens home and their communities. These include children from conflict zones, street children and children with disabilities. The Child-Friendly Schools model (see fig 1) is based on simple, rights-based concepts that would ease up all schools beSafe, well-informed and protectiveStaffed by trained teachersProvided adequate resources and the appropriate physical, emotional and social conditions for children to learn, develop their talents and fade their potential .Fig 1 Model of the Child-Friendly SchoolSource UNICEF, 2009.The CFS model provides a framework for planning (and monitoring the effectiveness of) strategies for increasing access to look basic education with the specific focus on the reading of strategies to include those children hitherto excluded from education (UNICEF, Global culture Strategy, 2007).International and Local Pressures and their influences to formation of CFS in KenyaEducation in sub-Sahara Africa, and indeed in Kenya, is crafted from both influences by global trends in education and the legacies of colonialism. Chisholm and Leyenderker (2008) ob dress thatSince 1990, the goals and purpose of education in sub-Sahara Africa has been reshaped by four interconnected evolutions globalisation, the changed focus of international aid agencies towards growth assistance, the adaptation of sub-Sahara African countries to the new world order with its new political emphases, and the spilling over of new pedagogical ideas from the USA and Europe into sub-Sahara Africa. (p 198)Kenya is a signatory to a number of conventions in education, including the Convention to the Rights of the Child (1989), the World contract on Education for All (Jomtien, 1990), the Dakar accord and the Millenium Development Goals (2000). In executement of education festering goals, Kenya is bound to, among other things, feature education by MDGs. The Jomtien call for access for access, equity, quality and democracy in education appeared to promise both social and economic development (Chisholm and Leyenderker, 2008). Social and economic development, and continues to be believed, requires educational change and educational change is necessary for social and economic development (ibid). Educational change, in turn, is perceived to depend on, amongst other things, the input from relevant development assistance projects. These projects, in the arena of education, are typically formulated with reference to internationally negoti ated development agendas (like the MDGs) and precession (Crossley Watson, 2003). An physical exertion of these projects in Kenya is CFSs which are supported by United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF). The Education Section of UNICEFs Programme Division introduced the Child Friendly Schools (CFS) framework for schools that serve the whole child in 1999 (Chabbott, 2004).Theoretical underpinning of introducing CFS framework in KenyaThe change magnitude reliance of unusual aid to support education reform in Kenya has been accompanied by a transition, from understanding education as a human right and the general good to viewing it primarily in terms of its contribution to national growth and well-being through the development of the knowledge and skills societies are deemed to need. (Arnove Torres 2007359). Occasional voices continue insisting that education is liberating, that versedness is inherently developmental (ibid 359).With the global concern that Sub-sahara Africa countri es may not achieve Universal Primary Education (UPE) by 2015 unless the progress is accelerated (Carceles et al., 2001 Bennel, 2002), Kenya responded by introducing Free Primary Education (FPE) policy in 2003 with both local and global pressure. The rationale behind introducing FPE was (apart from the pressure from global and international agendas) to appease poverty attributed to lack of literacy skills. The success story behind implementation of FPE policy is the increased enrolment at primary schools by nearly 50%, from 5.9 million in 2003 to 9.38 million pupils according to the Kenya Economic Survey 2011. unrivaled of its standout achievements was the enrolment of the late Kimani Maruge, the worlds oldest person to start primary school, he enrolled in the first grade in 2004, aged 84, he holds the Guinness World insert for this. Besides the enormous enrolment rates resulting from free primary education, there are concerns about the quality of schooling in primary schools in K enya. There are not enough textbooks, classrooms are overcrowded and the infrastructure in many schools is inadequate for the numbers of pupils attending. Many of the schools do not view as sanitation facilities. The teacher-pupil ratio is quite high according to UNESCO there are more than 40 pupils per teacher, on average. All of these factors militate against the provision of quality teaching. There is no magic wand for fixing this problem of quality in education. In response to this CFS were introduced in Kenya by UNICEF. According to UNICEF (2006)The challenge in education is not simply to get children into school, but too to improve the overall quality of schooling and address threats to participation. If both quality and access are tackled, children who are enrolled in primary school are likely to continue, complete the full cycle, achieve expected accomplishment outcomes and successfully transition to secondary school. (p. 1)The CFS framework (see appendix 3) aims at promo ting child-seeking, child-centred, gender-sensitive, inclusive, federation-involved, protective and healthy wooes to schooling and out-of-school education with a general goal of improving the quality of learning.Since CFSs are concerned with the quality of learning, it is important we look at the meaning of quality. The national examinations to obtain the Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) at the end of primary cycle and the Kenya Certificate of Secondary Education (KCSE) at the end of secondary cycle are designed to evaluate the consummation to which the primary and secondary graduates master the curriculum content. In other words, the national test scores are used as the powers of quality. The limitation of this indicator is that it does not take into account the context at which learning takes place i.e. the learning environment, learners unique characteristics etc. There are many definitions of quality but one of the descriptions of quality which emphasizes on the context was by Coombs. In his definition, Coombs (1985) suggests that quality pertains to the relevance of what is taught and learned to how well it fits the present and future ineluctably of the particular learners in question, given their particular circumstances and prospects in the temper of its inputs (students, teachers, facilities, equipment, and supplies) its objectives, curriculum and educational technologies and its socioeconomic, cultural and political environment. (p. 105)From his definition, Coombs puts context into consideration i.e. need of the learner, cultural and political contexts. In addition, he emphasizes on the relevance of what is taught and learned and how it fits the nature of particular learners in question. The fact that CFS emphasizes on learner-centered pedagogy and puts the child at the centre or focal point in the learning process raises the idea of what is regarded as valuable knowledge and how this knowledge is acquired in this particular contex t. This leads us to the inquiry on the school of thought or paradigm behind introducing a contextualized CFS framework. CFS as an approach to education is premised on constructivism, a theory of knowledge arguing that humans generate knowledge and meaning from interaction between ideas and real experiences. According to constructivists, the notions of reality and fair play are socially constructed and in different context with the understanding that knowledge is subjective and embedded in multiple realities. Thus, quality of learning should be viewed in the context in which it is occurs.Mainstreaming CFS model into the Kenyas educational system Whose voice Matters?Challenges in implementing CFS in KenyaAccess and Quality Dilemma Which one should be first priority?As I mentioned earlier, one of the role of CFS in Kenya is to improve the quality of learning. But the access to education is still a challenge in Kenya and there is fear that Kenya will not get under ones skin achieved E FA goals 1 and 2 by the year 2015. As we near the 2015 bunch deadline for the achievement of the Millennium Development Goals, at a time when hopes should be high, universal access to primary education in Kenya seems to be slithering away. Many comparative researchers argue that different countries earn different educational problems and it is the countrys obligation to identify what should be the priority and why. Aksoy (2008 218) insists thatWhile developed countries are mainly engaged in activities to increase the quality of education, or they practice and seek new techniques and methods of learning and teaching, developing countries struggle to provide catch opportunities for education, trying to increase the rate of participation of all citizens in basic education, which is actually compulsory. To deal with its educational problems, each country works out countrywide or local rootages, depending on the nature of the problem.The tone of such statement is more closely allied t o the question of priority. Priority in one country may not be a priority in another. In Kenya, the major problem basic education is facing is of access while higher education is facing the problem of quality. CFS focus more on quality, but in the Kenyan context, access to education is still a problem in basic education even after the introduction of FPE. The CFS concept of quality can however jibe very well in small state commonwealth countries which go for almost universal access to basic education. It has been noted that small sates have now shifted education priorities towards focus in school effectiveness, quality and inclusion (Crossley Watson 2003) and CFS in Kenya should learn from small states that the priority should now be on access to basic education before shifting to quality.Atomizing the child is child-centred the solution to quality CFS?A key feature of a right-based, CFS system is that it is cerebrate tightly to the child-centred learning process. CFS advocates for child-centred learning where a child is treated as a single entity or an atom in learning processes. The idea of atomizing a child has its drawbacks derived from child-centred learning. First, there is an oversight on early year development behaviour of the child. Psychologists believe children undergo various levels of development and their learning behaviours are different at each level. For instant, Vygotskys (1978) concept of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) implies that a child cannot ordinary create ZPD by himself he call for the more expert individual to bridge the gap between his current development level and his proximal level of development. Secondly, a child-friendly, egalitarian learning environment may not work successful in overcrowded classrooms and school with limited resources like it is the case in Kenya. Thirdly, child-centred learning weakens the role of the teacher. The idea that a child must be active in construction of knowledge is often understoo d to imply a lessen role for the teacher in learning process who now becomes a coach or a facilitator. A call for paradigm renovation, from an only when child-centred learning to a combination of both child-centred learning and teacher-centred learning approach is important so that the weakness of one method is complemented by the other method. Several comparative studies concur with this blended approach.What Lessons can Kenya learn from other Countries in Implementing CFS? A Review on the Contribution of Comparative ResearchThe term that is commonly used in Kenya and indeed many Africa countries in the initial processes of designing an educational policy is benchmarking. Essentially, this is usually a comparative study which is carried out either locally and/or internationally in trying to compare different models of policy framework with the aim of critical adaption or adoption. Lessons are well learnt when a comparisons are made, and this underscores the strength and meaning o f comparative research. Moreover, since problems transcend national borders, it is prudent to seek feasible solutions from a similar experience in another country, and this explains why international research is important. Kenya can learn from other countries that are either progressing or flunk to implement CFS because lessons can either identify opportunities or gaps, based on comparative analysis.The first lesson to be learned is that documenting the emerging good practices and lessons learned within the regions is useful in informing evidence based programming and advocacy to enable us to achieve better results. For example, a Global Evaluation Report published by UNICEF in 2009 on comparative studies of how to six countries (Guyana, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Philippines, South Africa, Thailand) with different experiences implementing CFS, demonstrated the followingCFSs in varying contexts successfully apply the three key principles of CFS models-inclusiveness, child-centredness an d democratic participation.Schools operating in very different national contexts, with different levels of resources and serving populations with different postulate have succeeded in being child-centred, promoting democratic participation, and being inclusive.Schools that had high levels of family and community participation and use of child-centred pedagogical approaches had stronger conditions for learning, that is, students felt safer, supported and engaged, and believed that the adults in the school supported the inclusion and success of each student. (UNESCO, 2009)Kenya can use this success report to assist in providing a broader perspective on the ways in which CFSs can contribute to quality in the countrys unique context. The management should however be that any steps taken should have hindsight of the current context in the country to avoid uncritical transfer of practice which may end up opening a Pandoras box.Secondly, through CIR, studies of educational systems that s hare similar problems can provide info for learning possible consequences. A recent comparative evaluation research conducted by UNESCO in Nigeria, Gunaya, Thailand and the Philippines on CFS pedagogy gave different findings. While teachers in Nigeria and Guyana mainly pore on meeting basic instructional material needs (textbooks, paper), many teachers in Thailand and the Philippines focused on having greater access to information and communication technology (UNESCO 2009). Kenya experiences the same challenge as Nigeria and Gunaya, and data from these countries can be used to learn how they coping with inadequate basic instructional material. The anxiety here should be, that common problems may prevail in different countries, but common model cannot be applied because each country has different culture/context (Crossley Watson, 200339). This provides invaluable information of what to adopt, modify or avoid. proofIt is worthy reiterating Crossley(2003) emphasis that context mat ters and different countries have different needs and priorities even if they are faced with the same challenges. The value of CIR is studying foreign systems of education in order to become better fitted to study and understand our own (Sadler 1900, reprinted 1964310). Thus, this essay has not provided, and has not sought to provide, solutions to empirical problems poignant CFS, but has presented an overview of the contribution of CIR in improving successful implementation of CFS in Kenya. As such, the essay acknowledges the role of CIR in stimulating critical idea and reflections about CFS system, its success and failures, strengths and weaknesses. This critical reflection facilitates self evaluation in our own context and the basis for determining appropriate courses of action. The article also hints that CIR helps us understand global agendas and how they shape educational development projects from organizations and development agencies like UNICEF.Recommendations and Way forw ard for Comparative and International Research in EducationWhile policy borrowing and cross-national educational comparison have been central concerns of the field of comparative education since its inception, political, economic, and cultural changes worldwide have challenged comparativists to consider new questions of power, politics and relevance in relation to educational policy transfer and diffusion processes. First, it has been argued that politicians who talk about educational development or economic development talk less about education and its role in economic development. This means that if comparative researches are to have their voice heard, then it should focus on strengthening multidisciplinary directions both in vertical and horizontal orientation. Secondly, in 1980s, comparative education focused majorly on the issue of policy, but it has now been shifted to qualitative research with an aim of gaining information at grassroots level. This has been catalyzed by the f act that culture is a compound phenomenon and understanding it requires researchers to focus more on specific, small-scale contexts.

Race And Religion In The Kite Runner English Literature Essay

stimulate And Religion In The Kite kickoff English Literature seek aft(prenominal) establishing the two novels I figured out how passel lived with racism all(a) around them in all forms and it entirely hurts much than to k nowadays that such passel still exist around us. To get the better of a mock Bird c everywheres various themes which be matching into the deterrent example landscape of a small t feature. As we go through it easily and gradually we find out close to the good and pretty generation spent by the people living the era, its hypocrisies, its injurys and racial discrimination amongst the people of their own kind. A more diversified look is further unified when we take a deeper look into the other novel The Kite Runner as well based on the discrepancies in race and religion and the take of thinking between the two, though not blood related al peerless brothers brought up under a identical father. Race and religion organism the only differences betwee n both worlds, apart from that nothing could pull them apart except for God. Racism is a result of human ignorance, social injustice, clan differences, fill in and tension and lack of self education. The distinguishs in both the novels argon c arefully placed noticing not to hinder the originality of the theme.The novels broaden the readers mind, forcing them to analyze their own racial orthodoxies towards are own fellow beings. Racial discrimination is perpetually considered to be a result of in-person upbringing but this is by all odds not the case when we look into the deeper side of the novels. In both the novels the informant highlights the topic of racism together keeping in mind the elemental theory of inhumanity against each other. Race has al paths been a long issue in all eras. Forming perceptions of ones self against people with different colourise is not too hard going through differences and disputes at any stage of life is how people mainly develop racism not because they can inherit it from their parents. By the quote Did you know Hassan and you fed from the same breast? Did you know that, Amir agha? Sakina, her name was. She was fair, blue-eyed Hazara fair sex from Bhamiyan and she sing you old wedding songs. They say there is a brother yob between people whove fed from the same breast. Did you know that? Baba expresses his inner feelings about the two boys living their lives together, telling them that nothing should pull them apart (Hosseini, 64-65). As they cod been fed from the same breasts and they share a special conglutination bond, and brothers comport nothing different from each other, no color, no religion, no race, no cast should divide them apart. Racial discrimination and preconceptions is highlighted boldly in the novel as well as the quotes, in the novel it unquestionably does not idealize the black community. It defines the virtues of the Black community which the Whites lack, free from hypocrisies, they ar e shown to be caring, upright people and humble. though the blacks are not ground to be immoral, but still in certain conditions blacks are the only race which come in limelight of the masses,If a white woman sees two black men walking towards her and turns the other way, shes a racist. well(p) I got scared and didnt say anything, and the next thing I knew, I had a gun shoved in my head(Crash,2004). Evidence is incorporated oer here where it shows that race is still what matters in most conditions. People have this perception that black or of other ethnic minorities are bad and evil, whatever they do is bad, is against them, in some societies blacks and browns are considered to be thugs and criminals since the twenty-four hour period they are born, while on the other side whites are considered to be the most well educated, civilized and morally suited people in the society. The society itself has made it hard for young person men/adults of ethnic nonage and casts to break free of this stereotype.Class status which had built up to befool much of the adults world at that time also involved the young tiddlerren in both the novels critiquing the moral perplexity of the young children giving evidence to the fact that, even though they were young they still had knew what was going on all around them. Scout being a girl in the novel To Kill a Mocking Bird also mum the scene and had an idea about what was going all around her, in school and in her small town. Social Inequality was practiced with immense dedication in both the novels, for example Aunt Alexandra refusing Scout to reconcile with Walter Cunningham just because the Cunninghams belong at the bottom of the white social scale. The white community in general the Cunninghams are racially prejudiced who leads the waste mob to the jail where Tom Robinson who was accused of raping a girl was kept before his trial. After realizing that he was the one who helped him and his family, he calls off the mob. After that, it is one of the Cunninghams in the jury who supports Atticus delaying the verdict and the Cunninghams were proved to be prejudice, ignorant and violent but there is something about them which makes them deserve respect. A similar contrast is made when the Negroes are shown as a flying close knit community Scout refers to them as a hale mass of colored people.We as a society have gotten so emotionally complicated that we have developed a prevalent selfishness and indolence towards understanding others. It is easier to label person as a gang-banger, because it dehumanizes them (Crash, 2004). The quote over here from the movie says how easy we have made to racially come apart someone just to make ourselves feel better. The feeling of degrading someone who is not from the same race as us is overwhelming the concept of labelling a black person or a person from a different indigenous group has been continued from an era where maybe not even our fathers were born in. Sim ilar to the quotes from the movie, there is a good get along of evidences from the novel out of which a few are mentioned here. Hassan is emotionally devoted to Amir as a friend and considering him his brother. Hassan puts his life on the define for Amir, winning the increase fight competition was not until Amir returns with the losing kite to Baba in order to do so Hassan puts his life on the blood line not thinking about the consequences he has to face to redeem the kite for Amir. In the process he has to face Assef who physically and mentally abuses him, racially tortures him calling him a flat nosed Hazara. Hassan never did let go of his love and affection for Amir and Baba though Baba and Amir both mistreated him for being a Hazara boy and a low cast boy. Though Baba wanted to show his affection for him, he could only do it indirectly by either taking Hassan out with Amir for drives or paid for his cleft lip surgery. The time has come/to say fairs fair/to have the rent/t o pay our share (Midnight Oil, 1987). These lines taken from the song Beds are Burning, provides us with evidences that hand over to think from a different perspective of not settle people only by how they look or whats their color is. It says try getting into other peoples skin and pay for the sins that we have made being racists Amir and Baba had committed sins that they tried to redeem being in love with each other.The ink is black, the page is white/Together we learn to read and write/A child is black, a child is white/The substantial world looks upon the sight, a beautiful sight/And now a child can understand/That this is the law of all the land, all the land(Three Dog Night,1957). The verses describes prejudice discrimination amongst black and white which have now been surely cleaned off, it says that now black and white allow work together no one can be on its own, we all have to work in collaboration with each other. The perception of racial discrimination no eternal ex ists is what the verses portray but in the novel To Kill a Mocking Bird Tom Robinson who is accused of raping a white girl. He represents the mock bird, innocent, loving and caring trying to make everyone blissful just wish the mocking bird itself which does not harm anyone but sings beautiful songs makes them happy and heals their wounds. Tom Robinson was just accused for a crime which he did not commit but because he was black and from the minorities the prejudice still continued. eventually racism not only appeals the greater audience but also gives a broader aspect in our current times, but it should not be the way it is. To a great extent lack of self education, ignorance and personal issues all lead to prejudices and racial discrimination. Even though more and more people are being educated every day, more connections are being made all over the world in all walks of life, still discrimination and racism prevails. Ignorant human beings amongst us move around freely, still practicing the cruel act of racism. Who in my opinion should be punished for the sins they are committing, sins which are by all odds their deeds and non-redeemable. Being prejudice or a racist is no one mans job and it is definitely not inherited but the concept is what matter, teachings and ideas from our ancestors about black being bad and white being the good is what is still killing our succeeding(a) generations which are indeed getting ready for this difficult race and fight. To fill this task our generation and the one coming ahead of us will certainly have to erase the stereotype of being and living in a racist society. All men are same, be they be white, black, brown or yellow all our of one bred, we all have the same rights and we for sure have the same mind, the only difference is the way one thinks and judges the other. If only people could start erasing the differences that are created by lack of self education, ignorance and social injustice.

diversity in organizations

sort in governingsIntroductionThis opus aims to file a deep examination of how miscellanea is interpreted and wrong blanket(a)y utilise in many disposals straight off. In this essay, I would explore and discuss the condition alteration, its definitions, merits, demerits, its varied applications and if there is a cause and effect blood between sort bleed force and organizational strong suit. This essay would similarly fork break why the term variety show is remotely satisfying and elaborate on the need for a raw(a) image for understanding mutation. My study supports the principles of the novelty theory but not its varied applications which inhibit organizational effectiveness. variety showThe term mixed bag has demonstrate its place in almost either HRM literature the front page. capital of Mississippi et al (1993), states that the term transmutation has petty(a) history indoors the demeanoral sciences and is not (yet) a scientific construct. Instead, it is an fooling term that sprang to life rather recently, nourished by widespread media insurance coverage of the managing form activities that organizations ar adopting in response to changing prepargon-force demographics. Nevertheless(prenominal), the body of complaisant science query relevant to understanding the dynamics of salmagundi in organizations is not large, although it is widely dispersed crossways sub disciplines that cross teleph matchless ex xsion some(prenominal)ly early(a) nor stick a common terminology (See Friedman, 199667). another(prenominal) interesting definition is found in Ashkanasy et al (2002) which defines salmagundi as a concept that encompasses acceptance and respect. It means the understanding that each private is unique and recognizing our individual differences. They croup be along the dimensions of race, ethnicity, g residueer, sexual orientation, socio economic status, age, physical abilities, religious beliefs, political beliefs a nd other ideologies and the exploration of these differences in a safe, positive and nurturing environment. innovation is ab out understanding each other and contemptible beyond simple tolerance to embracing and celebrating the rich dimensions of smorgasbord contained within each individualAllen et al (2008) asserts that salmagundi is a challenge and that organizations attain struggled to embrace and manage it victoryfully. look forers commence struggled to conceptualize and study the term effectively. Theorists calculate differing effect of Diversity that they allow spark integrative insights, creativity and cornerst single (e.g. Finkelstein and Hambrick, 1996 Hoffman and Maier, 1961) or that they will provoke departure, division and dissolution (e.g. Chatman, 1991 Tajfel and Turner, 1979). men Diversity (A Critical Analysis)Structural Diversity Vs demographic DiversityThe demographics of the custody be changing and will continue to change rapidly. Almost every organ ization looks contrasting both in terms of whos employed and they positions they hold, than it did ten years ago (Sonnenschien, 19992). Jackson et al (1995) also asserts that the changing break-force demographics and new organizational forms atomic number 18 change magnitude the transmutation of reach teams in cosmopolitan and ratiocination making teams in particular. Given these environmental changes, imprint teams that are various(a) in terms of sex, race, and ethnicity, national origin, area of expertise, organizational association and many other personal characteristics are increasingly common. The changing demographics of todays labour force, account for the increasing gender diversity, cultural diversity (including cultural differences overdue to race and ethnicity) and age diversity (See Kling, Hyde, Showers and Buswell, 1999 Konrad, Ritchie, Lieb and Corrigall, 2000 Roberson and Block, 2001).According to Ongari and Argolla (2007) Workforce diversity is a complex phenomenon to manage in an organization. The management of work force diversity as a tool to increment organizational effectiveness seatnot be underscored, especially with current changes sweeping across the globe. It is argued that organizations that survey diversity will definitely cultivate success and have a proximo in this dynamic global labour food market (Jain and Verma, 1996). Workforce diversity management has become an important issue for both governments and private organizations. Its brilliance has mainly been brought nigh by the free movement of labour due to globalization and the fight for human rights by certain minority roots who olfactory modality excluded from the employment sector. The workforce diversity emerged mainly to further the availability of tinct opportunities in the work place. This equal opportunity philosophy is aimed at ensuring that organizational make the most out of the difference from a various workforce rather than losing talent which might assist the organization to be much efficient and effective. The join ond mobility and fundamental interaction of people from diverse backgrounds as a result of improved economic and political systems and the recognition of human rights by all nations has put most organizations under pressure to embrace diversity at the work place. Diversity channels with it the heterogeneity that needs to be nurtured, well-mannered and appreciated as means of increasing organizational effectiveness.A more than diverse workforce according to Thomas and Ely (1996) will increase organizational effectiveness. It would lift morale, bring greater access to new segments of the market place and fire productivity. Yet if this is true, what then are the positive impacts of diversity? Numerous and varied initiatives to increase diversity in unified organizations have been under way for over a decade (Sonnenschein, 199249). Rarely, however, have those efforts spurred organizational effectiveness, Instead, many attempts to increase diversity in the workplace have backfired, sometimes even heightening and hindering a companys death penalty (Tsui and Gutek, 1999).As is commonly ascribed, Riodan (2000) asserts most people assume that workforce diversity is about increasing racial, national, gender or class representation in other words, recruiting and retaining most people from traditionally underrepresented identity groups. Taking this commonly held supposition as a starting point, Thomas and Ely (1996) set out to investigate the link between diversity and organizational effectiveness and they found that mentation of diversity simply in terms of identifying group representations subdue effectiveness. They also found that organizations usually follow two paths in managing diversity, In the name of empathy and fairness, the organizations encourage women and people of colour to blend in or they set them apart in jobs that relate specifically to their backgrounds, assigning t hem, for example to areas that require them to interface with clients and customers of the same identity group. In this kind of case, companies are operating on the assumption that the main merit identity groups have to offer is knowledge of their own people. This assumption is restrict and detrimental to diversity efforts (See Elsass Graves, 1997 Finkelstein Hambrick, 1996 Jackson, whitethorn and Whitney, 1995 Milliken Martins, 1996 Reskin, McBrier Kmec, 1999 Shaw Barrett Power, 1998)A recent meta-analysis of the effects of caper related (e.g. tenure) and non task related (e.g. ethnic and gender) diversity, by Weber Donahue (2001) revealed no dependable effects on organizational effectiveness, exercise or gluiness. Williams and OReilly (1998) assert that diversity goes beyond increasing the number of different identity groups affiliations in a company but that diversity should be studyn and understood as the varied perspectives and approaches to work that members of diffe rent identity groups bring.Another argument is by Cummings (2004) which says that effective work groups claim in external knowledge sacramental manduction- the exchange of information, know-how and feedback with customers, organizational experts and others outside the group. This paper argues that the value of external knowledge sharing increases when work groups are structurally diverse. A structurally diverse work group is iodine(a) in which the members, by virtue of their different organizational affiliations, roles or positions, can expose the group to unique sources of knowledge. It is hypothesized that if members of structurally diverse work groups invade in external knowledge sharing, their performance will improve because of this wide awake exchange of knowledge through unique external sources.Cummings (2004) also assert that scholars examining diversity in work groups have primarily concentrate on the consequences of demographic diversity (e.g. member differences in sex, age, or tenure) for serve upes such as communication, conflict, or accessible integration ( See also Jehn et al, 1999, Pelled et al, 1999 and OReilly et al, 1989). The consistently negative effects of demographic diversity on group processes are likely the result of heightened member emphasis on social categories rather than project relevant information. Demographic diversity should not increase the value of intra-group knowledge sharing or external knowledge sharing unless it exposes members to unique sources of knowledge related to the work (for a followup see Williams and OReilly. 1998).Relatively, little attention has been given to member differences in organizational affiliations, roles or positions. With the rise in labour costs, global expansion and corporate mergers, workgroups are often used as a means for connecting members who are dispersed across different geographic locations, who represent different functions and writing to different managers or who work in d ifferent craft units (DeSanctis and Monge, 1999 Jarvenpaa and Leidner, 1999 Maznevski and Chudoba, 2000). This version in features of the group structure is introduced here as structural diversity because of its authorisation to expose members to different sources of task information, know-how and feedback. Four types of structural diversity in work groups are mentioned below asGeographic locations (See avant-garde den Bulte Moenaert, 1998), Functional assignments (See Bunderson Sutcliffe, 2002), Reporting managers (e.g. Burns, 1989) and in disdain units (See Hansen, 2002)Another research done by Siciliano (1996) on 240 YMCA organizations, found no significant kin between diversity and organizational effectiveness. Middleton (1987) also asserted that diversity in any form has no impact on the operating efficiencies of an organization and diversity does not appear to influence one way or another, an organizations tendency to perform its control function.Merits of Managing Wo rkforce DiversityManaging diversity can create a competitive improvement. Potential makes of diversity include better ratiocination making, higher creativity and aim, greater success in marketing to unlike and domestic ethnic minority communities and a better distribution of economic opportunity ( cox, 1991 Cox Blake, 1991). According to one study (Watson et al, 1993) culturally diverse groups relative to homogenous groups are more effective both in the interaction process and job performance these benefits occur after a diverse group has been put in concert for a period of time. Mueller (1998) states that as all the segments of society have a stake in the development and prosperity of society as a whole, creating and managing a diverse workforce should be seen as a social and moral imperative. As globalisation is increasing, diversity will suffice organizations to enter the supranational arena (Cascio, 1998). Diversity grows creativity and innovation (Adler, 1997 Jackson e t al, 1992) and produces competitive advantages (Coleman, 2002 Jackson et al, 1992). Diversity teams make it possible to enhance flexibility (Fleury, 1999) and rapid response and adaptation to change (Adler, 1997 Jackson et al, 1992).organisational ChallengesCompanies can succeed at diversity if the initiative to create, manage and value the diverse workforce has the full support of the top management (Hayes, 1999 Jackson et al, 1992). Fiske, 1993 states that for increase effectiveness and adaptation of the diversity discourse, companies have to start thinking about diversity more holistically- as providing fresh and meaningful approaches to work and stop assuming that diversity relates simply to how a person looks or where they are from, only then would companies reap diversitys full rewards and Organizations with a diverse workforce can provide superior run because they can better understand customers needs (Weitling Palma-Rivas, 2000). Hiring women, minorities, disabled, etc wi ll help organizations to woo into these niche markets (Mueller, 1998) and diversified market segments (Fleury, 1999).Jackson et al (1995) state that the business economy has received much recent attention, with trade barriers are take and competition intensifies, many companies are beginning to expand their operations in redact to take advantage of foreign labour and consumer markets. For smaller companies, foreign activities may be limited to a single joint punt or to offshore production or distribution systems that involve one or two other countries. For larger corporations, foreign offices may be in over one hundred different countries (See Fulkerson Schuler, 1992). The presence of international affiliations, although not inevitable, is likely to lead eventually to the formation of teams of people with diverse cultural backgrounds, including management teams, design teams, operation teams and marketing teams (Adler Ghadar, 1991 Kanter, 1991 Von Glinow Mohrman, 1990) of whic h engage in decision making activitiesTheories and techniques of diversity management have been developed and enthusiastically supported by a growing number of chief executives, provision specialists, diversity consultants and academics (Saji, 2004)). Diversity can improve organizational effectiveness. Organizations that develop roll in the hay in and reputations for managing diversity will likely attract the best forcefulness (Carrel et al, 2000). Diversity requires a type of organizational culture in which each employee can pursue his or her career aspirations without being intimidated by gender, race, nationality, religion or other factors that are irrelevant to performance (Bryan. 1999). Managing diversity means change the diverse workforce to perform its full potential in an equitable work environment, where no one group has an advantage or disadvantage (Torres Bruxelles, 1992).Diversity in the workplace can be a competitive advantage because differing viewpoints can faci litate unique and fanciful approaches to problem-solving, thereby increasing creativity and innovation, which in turn leads to better organizational performance (Allen et al, 2004). For example, in Botswana, the society is becoming multicultural due to the increasing migrant population and their descendants. For organizations, this means that their market share, efficiency. mankind capital, international fight and level of innovation will depend on their ability to effectively manage a diverse workforce both within and across organizational boundaries (Barker Hartel, 2004 Dass Parker, 1996 Kandola et al, 1995 Strauss Mang, 1999)ConclusionsJackson (2003) In todays business environment, work teams are becoming more common and more diverse, intensifying the enormousness of understanding the dynamics of work- team diversity. Of particular importance, is diversity within decision making teams. Organizations are rapidly restructuring to take advantage of the potential benefits of d iverse decision making teams are worth the risk (or can be successfully avoided). Many of the specific assets and liabilities of work teams arise directly out of diversity.Despite various intensive efforts to time diversity and expect its outcomes, Jackson (2003) asserts many literature offer few conclusive findings about the effects of diversity in the workplace. Lack of a common paradigm will make it difficult to accumulate comparable findings over time, age agreement around some issues could accelerate our ability to learn from foregoing accumulated evidence. One useful element that could be suggested could be a common paradigm it would be for researchers to agree to a common newspaper or definition of diversity which would in turn lead to less confusion about this concept (See also Carroll Harrison, 1998 Bedeian Mossholder, 2000).Jackson (2003) affirms that Pettigrew (1998) used a very different approach to developing a blueprint for enabling organizational effectiveness. Based on a comprehensive look back of a large body of research conducted in a variety of settings, Pettigrew place the conditions needed to reduce intergroup bias and its negative consequence and described several processes that could be engaged to create these conditions. To the extent an originations diversity initiatives support these processes, they would encourage the development of positive intergroup relations, employee commitment, improved productivity and increased organizational effectiveness (See also Gaertner et al, 2000) and they areLearning about the other group(s) was one fundamental process identified by Pettigrew, Inaccurate stereotypes propel change for a variety of reasons but inaccurate stereotypes can be modified if people receive sufficient disconfirming evidence. Such acquire is often the objective of diversity awareness training.Behavioural Change is the imprimatur key process that is needed to promote positive intergroup relations. Engaging repeatedly in positive behaviour with members of a work team can lead to long term attitudinal change towards members. Providing training in the behavioural competencies needed to work effectively in organizations characterized by diversity is one way to encourage people to engage in positive behaviour towards work group membersCreating positive emotions associated with the work group is the third key process. For example, mentoring programs may encourage the development of intergroup friendships. The value of personal friendships may help explain the apparent success of informal mentoring programs.In conclusion, it seems likely that active voice diversity management will be required in order for organizations to comprehend the potential benefits locked up within their diverse work forces and as such organizations must put in place strategies to enhance workforce diversity. look for based principles for achieving these benefits and minimising potential losses have been offered. Some organiza tions are undoubtedly experimenting with practises that are consistent with these principles Jackson et al (1995). By the end of this decade, perhaps another review of diversity will yield operable suggestions for how to create a sustainable and effective organizational condition called for by Pettigrews analysis.ReferencesAllen, R.S., Dawson, G., Wheatley, K and White, C.S. (2008) Perceived Diversity and Organizational execution Employee Relations, Vol. 30, no 1, pp. 20-33.Ashkanasy, N.M., Hartel, C.E.J. and Dass, C.S (2002) Diversity and Emotion The New Frontiers in Organizational Behaviour Research ledger of concern, Vol. 28, pp. 307-338.Barker, S. and Hartel C.E.J (2004) Intercultural service encounter An exploratory study of customer experiences ledger of Cross Cultural Management, Vol. 11(1) pp. 3-14.Bedian, A.G and Mossholder, K.W (2000) On the use of the coefficient of variations as a measure of diversity Organizational research Methods, Vol. 3 285-297.Bryan J.H (1999) The diversity Imperative executive Excellence, pp6Bunderson, J.S and Sutcliffe K.M (2002) Comparing alternative conceptualizations of functional diversity in management teams process and performance effects academy of Management Journal, 45875-893Carroll, G.R and Harrison, J.R (1998) Organizational human ecology and culture insights from a former model and simulation Administrative comprehension Quarterly, vol. 43637-667Cascio, W.F (1998) Managing Human Resources Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profits, McGraw Hill, Boston, MACox T Blake S. (1991) Managing Cultural Diversity Implications for Organizational Competitiveness The honorary society of Management Executive, August.Cox T (1991) The multicultural organization the academy of management executive, MayCummings J (2004), Work groups, structural diversity, and knowledge sharing in a global organization, Management intuition, Vol. 50 pp.352 364.Cummings, J. N. Cross, R. (2003) Structural Properties of Work Groups and th eir Consequences for Performance Social Networks, Vol. 25 (3), 197-210.Dass, P Parker B (1999) Strategies for managing human imaging diversity from resistance to learning Academy of Management Executive, vol. 13 68-80Elsass, P.M Graves L.M (1997) Demographic diversity in decision making groups The experiences of women and people of colour Academy of Management review, Vol 22 946-973Ely R.J Thomas D.A (2001) Cultural diversity at work The effects of diversity perspectives on work group processes and outcomes Administrative Science Quarterly, vol 46 229-273.Fiske, S. (1993) Social Cognition and Social Perception in Rozenwig M.R L.W usher (Eds) one-year Review of Psychology, Vol. 44155-194. Pato Alto, CA Annual Reviews Inc.Friedman, R.A (1996) Defining the compass and logic of minority and female network groups can separation enhance integration? Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, vol. 14 307-349Fleury, 1999Gaertner S.L, Dovidio, J.F, Banker B.S, Houlette, M, Jo hnson K.M and Mc Glynn, E.A (2000) Reducing intergroup conflict From super ordinate goals to categorization, recategorization and mutual differentiation Group dynamics Theory, Research and practise, Vol 4 98-114.Hayes, E. (1999) Winning at Diversity Executive Excellence pp.9Klein, K. J. Harrison, D. A. (2007) On the diversity of diversity Tidy logic, messier realities faculty member of Management Perspectives, 21(4) 26-33.Jackson, B.W, La Fasto, F, Schultz, H.G, Kelly, D (1992) Diversity Human Resource Management, vol 31,pp.21-34Jackson, S.E, Joshi, A and Erhardt, N.L (2003) Recent Research in Team and Organizational Diversity nerd analysis and Implications Journal of Management, vol. 29, No. 6, pp.801-830.Jackson, S.E, May, K.E Whitney, K. (1995) Under the dynamics of diversity in decision making teams in Guzzo, A Salas, E. (Eds) Team effectiveness and decision making in organizations, pp. 204-261. San Francisco Jossey-Bass.Jackson, S.E, Stone, V.K Alvarez, E.B (1993) Social ization amidst diversity impact of demographics on work team old timers and newcomers Research in Organizational Behaviour, Vol. 15 45-111.Jehn, K.A, Northcraft, G.B Neale, M.A (1999) why differences make a difference a field study in diversity, conflict and performance in workgroups Administrative Science Quarterly, vol.44, pp. 741-763.Kandola, R, Fullerton, J and Ahmed, Y (1995) Managing diversity succeeding where equal opportunities have failed Equal Opportunities Review, 5931-36.Kling, K.C, Hyde J.S, Showers, C.J Buswell, B.N (1999) sexual activity differences in self esteem A Meta-analysis Psychological Bulletin, Vol. 125470-500Konrad, A.M, Ritchie, J.E, Lieb, J.R Corrigall, E (2000) Sex differences and similarities in job attribute preferences A Meta-analysis Psychological bulletin, 126593-641Milliken, F.J Martins, L.L (1996) search for common threads understanding the multitude effects of diversity in organizational groups Academy of management review, 21 402-433Ongori, H and Argolla, J.E (2007) Critical review of literature on Workforce Diversity African journal of Business Management, pp. 72-76Pelled, L.H, Eisenhardt, K .M Xin, K.R (1999) Exploring the black box An analysis of work group diversity, conflict and performance Administrative Science Quarterly, 441-28.Pettigrew, T.F (1998) Intergroup Contact Theory Annual Review of Psychology, 4965-85Reskin B.F, McBrier, M Kmec, J.A (1999) The determinants and consequences of workplace sex and race organization Annual Review of sociology, Vol 25335-362Riordan, C.M (2000) Relational demography within groups erstwhile(prenominal) developments, contradictions and new directions Research in Personnel and Human Resource Management, Vol 19131-174Roberson, L, Kulik, C.T and Pepper, M.B (2001) Designing effective diversity training influence of group organic law and trainee experience Journal of Organizational Behaviour , vol. 22 871-885Shaw, J.B Barrett-Power, E (1998) The effects of diversity on smal l work group processes and performance Human Relations, Vol 51 1307-1325.Strauss, P, Mang, J (1999) Culture shocks in inter-cultural service encounter? Journal of Services Marketing, vol 4, no 5 pp.329-346Sonnenschein, W. (1992) The diversity toolkit how you can build and benefit from a diverse workforce Contemporary Publishing Company, USA.Thomas, D.A Ely, R.D (1996) Making differences discipline A new paradigm for managing diversity Harvard Business Review. Sep/Oct 79-90Torres, C, Bruxelles, M (1992) capitalizing on global diversity HM Magazine, pp.30-33Tsui, A.S Gutek, B.A (1999) Demographic differences in organizations Lanham, MD Lexington BooksWatson, W.E, Kumar, K, Michaelsen, L (1993) Cultural diversitys impact on interaction process and performance comparing homogenous diverse task groups Academy of Management Journal, 36(3) pp.590-602.Webber, S.S Donahue L.M (2001) Impact of highly and less job-related diversity on work group cohesion and performance A Meta-analysis Jou rnal of management, vol 27 141-162.Wentling, R.M, Palma-Rivas, N (2000) Current status of diversity initiatives in selected multinational cooperations human resource Development Quarterly, 11(1) pp.35-60Willaims, K.Y OReilly, C.A (1998) Demography and Diversity in organizations A review of 40 years of research in BM Staw Cummings LL (Eds), Research in Organizational Behaviour, Vol. 20 77-140,www.springerlink.com/content/h2j1304710738k50/ accessed on 10.4.09www.adc-assoc.com/the%20Business%20Case%20for%20Diversity accessed on 30.04.09www.sns.se/forskning/valfard/migration/occpap86.pdf accessed on 24.04.09

Compare And Contrast Different Organisational Structures And Cultures

Comp ar And Contrast Different Organisational Structures And endings basis Organisations atomic issue forth 18 complex, social systems which seek to contrive the best use of population as a zippy and essential resource, especially in straight offs increasingly dynamic, globalised and competitive surroundings (Mullins, 2010 39). They posses distinct identities, which argon developed and formulated from a mix of how they choose to take a shit, present and trade place their clientele to the world, the type of services and/or products provided and the cultivation that e merges as a consequence (Clegg et al, 2011, 14-16). Organisational grammatical constituteion should be promoten by incorporate system and the resulting objectives and tasks in order to facilitate the delivery of Economic and efficient personalized line of credit performance Performance management and the monitoring of activities Accountability Co-ordination across the pedigree Flexibility and adaptab ility providing a framework for change and innovation (Hayes, 2010 270-282) Social satisfaction for those working indoors the brass instrument. (Fineman et al, 2010 1-12). Therefore, brass instruments atomic number 18 systematically arranged frameworks seeking to create a unified, organic body which relates people, let on patronage as chastises, knowledge and happy property in a jut that aims to achieve specific goals (Clegg et al, 2011 666). raw material models of presidential termal social system which have evolved in an attack to balance these factors argon illustrated in App wipeoutix 1. However, to be successful organisations must non operate in isolation from the milieu that surrounds them (Morgan, 2006 3842), and both(prenominal) of the let out aspects to consider argon highlighted in Appendix 2. One of the most complex factors is that of finis comprised of the habits, value, mores and shipway of acting by which people identify themselves and others (Cl egg et al, 2011 216). Organisational market-gardening therefore relates to those patterns of beliefs, values and learned ways of coping with experience that have developed during the ancestry of an organisations history, and which tend to be manifested in its material arrangements and the deportments of its members (Brown, 1998 9 Schein, 2010 7-21). The important, though frequently intangible, heathenish aspects of an organisation ultimately shape which levers of ply and influence argon the most telling in driving soulfulness and group behaviours, ultimately affecting business performance and success (Linstead et al, 149194). These factors are summarised in Appendix 3. In essence, glossiness throne be regarded as macrocosm the personality of an organisation and as it shapes how people feel it is not something that contribute be tardily managed (Stacey, 2011 78-89). Organisational organizes (particularly those imposed or developed during a period of change) that do not consider these pagan aspects can adjudge discontent, inefficiency, resistance and resentment from employees (Cunliffe, 2008 4568). Consequently, it is vital to reflect upon culture when considering organisational design as the informal structures that result are as important as the formal mechanisms and management arrangements created (Schein, 2010 177-196). Ultimately, the decisions, actions and major growths of organisations are influenced and determined by faulting coalitions of indivi two-folds attempting to protect or enhance their own interests (Burnes, 2009 197).Comparing organisational structures In create the organisational designs outlined in Appendix 1, key factors must be considered which go out shape the structural decisions taken. These are Scale. Whilst cosmicr organisations can benefit from efficiencies construct about economies of scale, the greater complexity knotted in managing large add up of people with less likelihood of direct interpersonal contact a good deal calls for more sophisticated organisational designs. Technology. This is the combination of resources, knowledge and techniques that creates an organisations products or services. The match between structure and technology the technological imperative is vital to go along competitive advantage in modern business. For example, successful fold production operations have rigid structures create around large working groups. Environment. A successful business understands that they indispensability to receive assorted inputs from the environment at heart which they operate and as healthful as sell their outputs into this environment. Structures therefore want to receipt factors much(prenominal) as global economics/markets, suppliers and competitors. Strategy. Organisational strategy the border of positioning the organisation in its competitive environment and implementing actions to compete successfully shapes design. Developing the organisations unique selli ng point or market unlikeiation by building a structure that protects and develops key competences is a lively issue if business growth is to be maintained. (French et al, 2008 330334) Consequently, in considering the relative merits of the structures shown in Appendix 1, the following observations can be doFunctional structure Organisations built around usable structures deliver happen task assignments which can be easily aligned to the skills and training of individuals and teams ((Stewart et al, 1999 82-88). The structure is easy to explain to employees, suppliers and customers whilst besides facilitating internal communications and problem firmness of purpose as knowledge pools are recognised and shared. Importantly, such structures also financial aid in the teaching of star topologyers and managers as functional peers and superiors are intelligibly identified and should be accessible (French et al, 2008 348). Unfortunately, such functional glide pathes can lead to th e growth of sectional interests which may appointment with the needs of the organisation as a whole (Cole Kelly, 2011 251). In instructionsing on the organisations functional hierarchy for means and reinforcement, individuals and teams can lose sight of the brilliance of products, services or clients the leadershiphip is drawn into cross-functional problems (Adair, 2002 17-25). As a consequence, conflict between functional units can increase with internal communications congruous ever more complex as they attempt to minimise such issues (French et al, 2008 348).Product structure Large organisations with a wide product or service range are often attracted to a product-based structure as it can be more antiphonary to technological change as people are grouped on the basis of their expertise (and supporting(a) infrastructure) within a particular unit (Hayes, 2010 87-104). Such an approach also enables/supports rapid diversification and skills expansion in that additional prod uct or service eye sockets can be incorporated relatively easily (Cole Kelly, 2011 251). This organisational methodological analysis can introduce unnecessary internal aspiration between business units as certain product groups are promoted to the detriment of other elements of the organisation (Nadler Tushman, 1997 71-88). Senior managers are faced with the challenge of dominanceling such behaviour whilst also recognising that the associated incentive and reward structures are inevitably built around the success of individual product lines (Burnes, 2009 104106).Geographic structure Large home(a) or multi- subject field entities face significant logistical and communication challenges and this usually makes some kind of regional or neighborhood structure essential for tackive decision making and control (Nadler Tushman, 1997 59-70). Whilst this produces the benefits associated with a more decentralised approach (such as a focus on local customers and being responsive to reg ional market pressures), it does cause concern for ranking(prenominal)(a) managers seeking to set a unified corporate direction (Linstead et al, 2011 225226). Significant leadership and senior management effort must be spent on visit geographically dispersed business elements in order to maintain personal relationships through face-to-face contact, thus avoiding corrosive and self-defeating internal competition (French et al, 2008 350).Vertical specialisation The structures outlined above provide a stool separation of authority and activities on the basis of hierarchical ranking within the organisation. The chain of check created on the basis of vertical specialisation ensures that senior leaders plan and set the overall strategy with specific lower-level guidelines, and prosody issued for the implementation of that strategy (Morgan, 2006 2425, 104). Those organisations with m whatever levels of hierarchy and control are considered as being tall, whilst those with only a a co uple of(prenominal) levels are describe as being flat (French et al, 2008 343). It is usually the case that the flatter structures exit greater decentralisation of decision-making and autonomy through the organisation whilst the taller structures focus on tighter, pen upr control mechanisms. The most effective balance for the organisation concerned must recognise the critical success factors set, the in operation(p) environment of the business and the existing corporate culture in relation to the sensed culture required (Mullins, 2010 508512 Stacey, 2011 94-105).Unity of command, span of control and sensemaking As well as addressing the requirements of vertical specialisation, functional, product and geographic structures also seek to practice two key tenets of classical management theory Unity of tender an employee should receive orders and direction from only one superior. Span of Control the number of people reporting to one superior must not be so large that it creates p roblems of communication and coordination. (Morgan, 2006 19) These aspects are shaped by the organisations sensemaking abilities i.e. the skills and competences of managers to make sense of what they do (Clegg et al, 2011 668). Sensemaking is a complex issue involving Social linguistic context considering the actual, implied or imagined views or presence of others Personal Identity a personal or group view of who they are (and their organisational identity) Retrospection this is important within organisations, as sometimes the most important decisions are the least macroscopic initially. Salient cues managers using past experiences and relating them to current scenarios in order to shape their actions and attitudes. Ongoing projects what structure or patterns exist within the organisation to allow managers the time and space to review and reflect upon an issue and change direction or tempo if necessary. Plausibility developing enough meaning to drive forward with a project. E nactment The ability to react and shape or amend an evolving situation. Drafting and Doing the ability to understand an emerging business scenario and thus isolate key themes in order to understand what is going on. (Clegg et al, 2011 22) apt(p) these complexities, many organisations are seeking to develop mixed structures which seek to obtain the benefits potentially provided by the functional, product and geographical forms of organisation whilst also recognising the grandness of these inter-personal aspects (Morgan, 2006 5052). Appendix 1 illustrates two models that aim to do so Divisional and hyaloplasm structures.Divisional structure A divisional structure seeks to overcome the problems associated with product or geographic diversity as each division can respond to the specific requirements of its product or market strategy (Johnson et al, 2011 434). Divisional managers have greater personal ownership of their strategies and their teams, allowing for the development of co mpetences focused on a particular product range, technology area or customer grouping (Henry, 2011 318319). A divisional structure also provides significant flexibility as organisations can add, close or merge divisions as circumstances change (Johnson et al, 2011 435). Whilst delivering a flexible and responsive organisation, a divisional structure does present a business with three key disadvantages Divisions can become too autonomous, operating as independent businesses only when introducing inefficiency by duplicating the functions and costs of the corporate centre. Personal and team identity is root in the division preferably than the wider business, captureing cooperation, knowledge sharing and fragmenting expertise. Divisions can end up pursing their own strategies regardless of the needs of the corporate centre which loses control and is only able to add minimal value to the operation (Cole Kelly 2011251252).Matrix structure A matrix organisation seeks to overlay a fla t structure based on products, projects, business activities or geographic area upon the more traditional vertical specialisation structure (Clegg et al 2011 544). This introduces dual or even multiple lines of authority and responsibility in an effort to deliver flexibility in relation to the forming of project teams, improve the engagement of resources and to encourage cross-functional cooperation (Linstead et al, 2011 216218). The vertical specialisation is seen as enduring, with the horizontal interaction often regarded as being temporary with the relationships dissolved as activities or projects are completed (Pettigrew Fenton, 2000 117143 Wall Minocha, 2010 319321). However, unless carefully controlled, matrix management complicates the unity of command and span of control aspects previously discussed (Morgan, 2006 19). Without clear boundaries, organisational conflict between functional and project managers can emerge, the autonomy of line managers can be erode and decisi on making becomes more inefficient leading to increased overheads (Clegg et al, 2011 545).Organisational culture Having recognised that organisations do not operate in a hoover and that it is important to create a structure that maximises the business return from the environment within which it operates, it is important to consider how culture (the shared ways of view and behaving) shapes success (Cole Kelly, 2011 590). Eight ethnic characteristics have been identified as being critical for organisational success A bias for action doing rather than discussing Staying close to the customer learning about their requirements and contact them in full self-direction and entrepreneurship being encouraged to think Productivity through people recognising and recognise best efforts Hands on executives keeping in touch and displaying corporate values Core competences focussed on what you do best comfort where possible lean organisations with the fewest possible layers Loose-tig ht properties focussed on hollow out values whilst allowing tolerance to explore and challenge. (Peters Waterman, 1982 89-318) In shaping an organisation in an attempt to maximise the potential return from these cultural characteristics, it is sensible to recognise the origins of corporate culture which are essentially The societal or national culture within which an organisation is physically situated. For large, multi-national organisations this introduces the challenge of understanding and incorporating different and cultural frameworks The vision, management style and personality of an organisations fall flat or dominant leader The type of business an organisation conducts and the character of its business environment. (Brown, 1998 42) tillage is therefore about an organisations history, stories, language and values rather than the application of theoretical models (Cunliffe, 2008 55). close in the organisational context becomes a critical success factor because It shapes the image that key stakeholders (including customers) have of the company and can become a crucial element of product or business differentiation within a market segment It influences performance as a positive culture (supporting the image and success of the business) that is essential to meeting corporate goals and the requirements of the wider business environment. A negative or counter-culture such as that which could emerge during a period of restructuring can work against organisational force It provides direction, as mission, vision and values statements identify where the business is going and how it plans to get there. A culture that creates a shared ownership of goals and which guides decision making can reduce the need for direct control because people know what is evaluate of them, how to behave and what they exit be rewarded for. It can attract and retain versatile and motivated staff. Strong cultures can have a powerful effect on the behaviour and commitment of em ployees. (Cunliffe, 2008 5859) In terms of cultural analysis, three levels of review can be considered Observable culture, often described as the way things are done, which are often the methods, rituals, ceremonies and symbols apply to impart an organisations shared values and approaches to new members (such as within installation programmes) Shared values, often manifested through statements aimed at delivering direction and cohesion and underpinned by identifiers such as the wearing of a uniform Common assumptions i.e. the reliable truths (often implicit and unspoken) that members of an organisation share as a result of their articulatio experiences. (French et al, 2008 380382) Attempts have been made to codify the core organisational cultures that are presented and the commonly build models are Role Culture focussed on rules, tasks, procedures and job descriptions office Culture power exercised by a central figure with few formal rules Person Culture the organisation ex ists for the benefit of its members Process Culture the following of highly regulated processes Tough-guy Culture driven by the need to take quick decisions, underpinned by risk-taking and a competitive ethos usage life-threatening/Play Hard Culture aiming to balance performance with work-place enjoyment Bet-Your-Company Culture a long-term outlook built upon significant (early) investment bureaucratic Culture a focus on consistency, control, efficiency and conformity coterie Culture focussed on commitment, involvement, teamwork and participation Task/Mission Culture goal oriented with rewards based on achieving mission and goals Adaptability Culture focussed on flexibility, innovation, risk-taking, empowerment and learning. (French et al, 2008 394395 Cunliffe, 2008 65, Cole Kelly, 2011 146-149) If strategies are to be developed that may change the structure of an organisation then it will also be necessary to potentially challenge and change the underpinning culture (Ha yes, 2010 438-447) considering purely sagacious processes such as planning and resource allocation will not be enough (Johnson et al, 2011 181). However, dangers do exist when conducting any analysis of organisational culture as it is too easy to over-simplify or even trivialise the issues involved it is not something that can be reduced to a few traits, easily linked to performance issues or readily managed (Johnson et al, 2011 182). Managers can shape culture through vision and value statements, supported by their own actions and expectations and this includes the organisational structure applied (Cunliffe, 2008 67). The power levers to be applied within the organisation and the cultural interaction that results should also be considered (see Appendix 3). However, perspectives on culture will influence the corporate view as to its relevance and importance to the sustainable success of the business and these views are essentially Integration the culture of the organisation is r elatively clear, unambiguous and straightforward Differentiation recognising the existence of sub-cultures within groups that are not easily identified or understood and which can inhibit change or development initiatives if not addressed Fragmentation no real cultural consensus can be identified around which any business strategy or organisation can be built (Brown 1998 296-297)Summary and conclusions Ultimately, organisational design is taken forward by corporate leaders and key decision makers whose choices are based upon their own predispositions (experiences, values and beliefs) (Cole and Kelly, 2011 256, Nadler Tushman, 1997 21). Therefore, although decisions are overtly based upon what is seen to be the best and most efficient construct for the business, in reality cultural factors prove to be just as important. Organisational culture is the basic assumption and beliefs shared by the members of an organisation, operating unconsciously and which help to define a companys vi ew of itself and its operating environment (Schein, 2010219-234). Culture may contribute to the capabilities and strategic direction/effectiveness of an organisation, but it can also stifle necessary development and exploitation if internal values and mores do not reflect external changes. Organisational structures and cultural influences can therefore both inform and constrain the strategic development and ultimately the competitiveness of a business In order to maintain competitive advantage and to avoid any strategic drift (where culture and organisational factors drive the business rather than the needs of customers and key stakeholders), both should be critically reviewed and their impact considered regularly by leaders and senior managers.References Adair, J. (2002). useful Strategic Leadership, Basingstoke Pan Macmillan Ltd. Brown, A. (1998). Organizational Culture, 2nd Edition, Harlow Pearson bringing up Ltd. Burnes, B. (2009). Managing Change, 5th Edition, Harlow Pearso n Education Ltd. Cole, G.A., Kelly, P. (2011). concern Theory and Practice, 7th Edition, Andover Cengage Learning EMEA. Clegg, S., Kornberger, M., Pitsis, T. (2011). Managing Organizations An Introduction to the Theory Practice, tertiary Edition, capital of the United Kingdom Sage Publications Ltd. Cunliffe, A.L. (2008). Organization Theory, London Sage Publications Ltd. Fineman, S., Gabriel, Y., Sims, D. (2010). Organizing Organizations, quaternate Edition, London Sage Publications Ltd. French, R., Rayner, C., Rees, G., Rumbles, S. (2008). Organizational Behaviour, Chichester John Wiley Sons Ltd. Hayes, J. (2010). The Theory and Practice of Change concern, third Edition, Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Henry, A.E. (2011). Understanding Strategic Management, 2nd Edition, Oxford Oxford University kettle of fish. Johnson, G., Whittington, R., Scholes, K. (2011). Exploring Strategy, 9th Edition, Harlow Pearson Education Ltd. Kakabadse, A., Ludlow R., Vinnicombe, S. (1988). Working in Organisations, Aldershot Penguin. Linstead, S., Fulop, L., Lilley, S. (2009). Management Organization A Critical Text, 2nd Edition, Basingstoke Palgrave Macmillan. Morgan, G. (2006). Images of Organization, London Sage Publications Ltd, Mullins, L.J. (2010). Management Organisational Behaviour, 9th Edition, Harlow Pearson Education Ltd. Nadler, D.A., Tushman, M.L. (1997). Competing by Design The Power of Organizational Architecture, New York Oxford University Press Inc. Peters, T.J., Waterman, R.H. (1982). In Search of Excellence Lessons from Americas Best occur Companies, New York Harper Row Inc. Pettigrew, A.M., Fenton, E.M. (2000). The Innovating Organization, London Sage Publications Ltd. Schein, E.H. (2010). Organisational Culture and Leadership, 4th Edition, San Francisco John Wiley Sons Inc.Stacey, R.D. (2011). Strategic Management and Organisational Dynamics The challenge of complexity to ways of thinking about organisations, 6 th Edition, Harlow Pearson Educ ation Ltd Stewart, G.L., Manz, C.C., Sims, H.P. (1999). Team Work and Group Dynamics, New York John Wiley Sons Inc. Wall, S., Minocha, S., Rees, B. (2010). International Business, 3rd Edition, Harlow Pearson Education Ltd. concomitant 1MODELS AND ASPECTS OF ORGANISATIONAL